1. H. Pylori bacteria and its role in ulcers

    https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Helicobacter_pylori_diagram.png#fileALT

    Helicobacter pylori, commonly known as H. pylori, gained recognition when two Australian scientists – Barry Marshall and Robin Warren – discovered its association with stomach diseases in the 1980s. Their research revealed the role of H. pylori in stomach inflammations, ulcers and even cancer.

    H.pylori endures the harsh, acidic environment by producing an enzyme named urease when entering the stomach. Urease converts urea (found in gastric juices) into carbon dioxide and ammonia. Ammonia raises the surrounding pH level, creating a protective bubble around the bacterium, enabling it to flourish.

    While H. pylori strives to coexist peacefully within us, sometimes an imbalance occurs, resulting in harm instead of harmony. There are a few strains which produces toxins that damage the mucus in the stomach. Some strains develop a needle that pokes the mucus, and causes injury as well.

    However, eradicating H. Pylori has known to be detrimental. It upsets the gut balance, and could lead to anxiety and overall health issues. However, any infection and prolonged inflammation or ulcers needs to be treated. With H. Pylori prevention is better than treating the infection. Hence adopt hygienic measures like washing hands, using safe drinking water, clean utensils must be practiced.

    To demonstrate his theory about H.Pylori being responsible for gastritis, Dr. Barry Marshall consumed a petri dish full of the pathogens. Soon enough he developed the ulcers. Subsequent tests confirmed the infection. He was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine in 2005 for his discovery.

  2. Reasonable rather than Rational

    image

    This is a mental model or a framework that could be applied in multiple situations to the collective good and personal good.

    Human body addresses an infection by increasing the temperature of the body to kill an infection. It has been studied that this is very effective. To study this a doctor treated Syphilis by inducing Malaria in patients to increase their body temperature. Since there were no drugs for treating Syphilis at that point of time, it was effective in saving the lives of many of his patients.

    However, now, the practice is to reduce the fever first and treat the infection with medicine. The reason is that fever is horrible, and no one wants to suffer through that. This is a reasonable thing to do. The rational thing to do is to increase the temperature of the body and kill the infection.

    Reasonable here refers to being practical, moderate and sensible. It takes into the emotional wants and needs of others. There might not be a single correct answer, and it allows for flexibility and compromise.

    Rationality, on the other hand, refers to the ability to think logically and make decisions based on reason rather than emotion. Reason is looking into evidence and identifying cause and effect relationships. It is an important aspect of decision making. However, if we are too rigid in our thinking, we fail to consider the broader context of the situation.

    By being reasonable, many a times, the most efficient choice would not be picked. You might be leaving something on the table. However, it more than makes up for it in the long run.

    Few examples of situations where this will be helpful:

    1. Ethical Decisions: These involve complex tradeoffs between competing values of principles. One broader example would be climate change mitigation. Other would be conversations around religion.
    2. Resolving conflicts with loved ones: In these situations, it is essential to be both reasonable and rational. These situations are where you find a common ground between your needs and other’s needs.
    3. Finance: In Finance instead of waiting for the absolute best strategy that would give the best return, it is ok to continue investing, and settling for a strategy that provides reasonable returns.

    While rationality is an essential component of good decision making, it should be balanced with reasonableness.

  3. Terraforming Mars

    1999 Hubble Space Telescope image, one of several taken when Mars was 54 million miles (87 million km) from Earth attributed to -  https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasahubble/46665076711/ALT

    The objective of terraforming Mars would be to make it habitable, say earth 2.0. The closest we have to a habitable planet is Mars.

    Terraforming Mars would be a massive undertaking, and it involves a few important alteration of the planet’s characteristics.

    Atmosphere

    Mars’ atmosphere is very thin compared to earth. It is composed of mostly carbon di oxide (95%). Mars has a lower gravity, so it does not have enough force to keep the atmosphere from slowly escaping.

    Mars’ internal dynamo is inactive. The dynamo is the process of generating magnetic field by churning of molten iron within a planet’s core. Since Mars is smaller and cooler than earth, its core has largely cooler and solidified. Hence its magnetic field is weak and patchy.

    A weak magnetic field provides it with little resistance to solar winds from sun. Solar winds would knock off the atmosphere, further depleting it. Compared to Mars, earth’s magnetic field is stronger, and hence provides a shield against solar winds.

    Temperature

    The temperature at Mars is around -80F, making it unfit for human life. It is distance from the sun, and the lack of green house gases in its atmosphere makes the temperature very low.

    What needs to be done?

    1. The atmosphere has to be built by releasing trapped CO2 in the ice caps.
    2. The atmosphere must be made breathable.
    3. The temperature must be increased.
    4. Liquid water must be created.

    Popular Solutions

    There are few popular solutions to doing that.

    Nuking Mars

    Elon popularized the idea of nuking Mars at its poles. This would presumably release swaths of C02 into the atmosphere. The heat released from the nuclear detonation, and the release of greenhouse gases (CO2 and water vapor) would heat the planet, as well as thicken the atmosphere.

    The problem with that is two folds:

    1. Building huge amount of nuclear bombs to be transported to Mars, would risk a nuclear Armageddon at earth, knowing our predisposition for war.
    2. It could trigger a nuclear winter at Mars. Mars is dusty, hence a detonation could whip up a sand storm that could engulf the planet in darkness, thereby failing to increase the temperature as well.

    Giant Mirrors

    This one borrows from the popular myth that Archimedes used mirrors to burn enemy ships. Similarly if we could install giant mirrors in Mars’ orbit, we could theoretically reflect the sun light and thereby heat up the Mars, triggering the release of green house gases in its polar region.

    The biggest problem is in its implementation. How would we transport giant mirrors ? We would have issues with the rocket equation. To transport an 1lb weight, we would have to spend around $10,000. The heavier the load the difficulty and the economics become prohibitively big.

    Hence we would have to do it with materials found on Mars, and then launch it from the surface of Mars. There are quite a few steps to get there.

    Conclusion

    These steps and methods are still at a hypothetical state and would take centuries to complete. Even if they are possible we have to consider the ethical implications of drastically altering another planet.

    There is no planet B!

    Bonus

    Musk has set habituating Mars during his lifetime as one of his personal goals. One of the reasons he said was that it would provide another planet for human race to escape if A.I. takes over the world.

    While Deep Mind CEO Demis Hassabis visited Musk, he casually remarked, that the A.I. and robots would find a way to travel to Mars, making his entire point moot. Musk was stumped by the plot hole it is said!

  4. LEO Satellites - How do they stay in orbit ?

    On a clear evening what appears as a slowly moving trail of light could be starlink satellites. You might wonder who turned the lights on in them ?

    Grateful that my neighbor talked me down from us being attacked by aliens and that it was only the #starlink satellite. #rad #science pic.twitter.com/gCSDRQubpN  — 👋🏼 hi, i’m katie (@kswansondesign) August 21, 2022ALT

    These are starlink satellites that are placed in the Low Earth Orbit - around 200-800 Km from the earth’s surface. This is very close to earth for an orbiting satellite. In fact the gravity experienced by these satellites would be almost the same as the gravity experienced at earth’s surface.

    To understand how they manage to be in orbit, let us to do a thought experiment. Say you throw a stone across a pond. the higher the force that you impart on it, the longer the distance it travels. Now imagine that you manage to impart a force so strong, that it travels the entire earth and comes around to hit you on the head. Well, that is what is happening with these satellites at around 200km above the earth’s surface.

    image


    There are two major forces that are acting on such a rock that is orbiting around the earth - the gravity and the centrifugal force. While the gravity tries to pull the rock towards the earth the centrifugal force acts on the opposite direction counteracting it.

    To understand centrifugal force, let us go back to the childhood play thing of the spinning disk and a post or a devil’s wheel of Oktober fest.

    The centrifugal force is the force that is pushing you outward from the spinning disk. The farther from the center, the bigger the force. The centrifugal force can also be increased by increasing the velocity. Thus, for an object to be at orbit without falling, it has to be as far as possible from the earth’s surface, and/or have a higher velocity while revolving around the earth.

    For an object to be in LEO, it must be travelling at around 7.8 km/s depending on the altitude. And these satellites revolve around the earth around 12-16 times a day, depending on the altitude.

    Unlike geo-synchronous (GEO) satellites that are at an altitude of 36000 Kms and are stationary with respect to earth, these satellites move with respect to earth. Hence they need lots of satellites to cover the entire earth and they could need base stations to hand over signals. They also suffer from doppler, which must be corrected as well.

    Though the air is less dense at 200km, LEO satellites still face significant air resistance, and they lose their altitude. To correct this they use rockets to boost their altitude three to four times a year. They are powered by solar energy with battery backup.

    The International Space Station is also at a Low Earth Orbit, enabling faster and cheaper travel between the space station and the earth. Since the centripetal force and the gravity are equalized, the astronauts at the space station feel weightlessness or zero gravity.

    image

    The Starlink satellites reflect the sun, and hence they appear to shine, sparkle and shimmer!

  5. Summary of Hyperfocus by Chris Bailey

    Introduction

    In today’s world, we are constantly bombarded with distractions that make it difficult to focus on the task at hand. Hyperfocus, a book by Chris Bailey, offers practical tips and unconventional wisdom to help readers harness their ability to focus and achieve more in less time. In addition to hyperfocus, Bailey also introduces the concept of scatterfocus, which can help individuals generate creative ideas and insights.

    Hyperfocus

    Hyperfocus is a state of mind that allows individuals to concentrate intensely on a specific task or project. According to Bailey, hyperfocus can be achieved by eliminating distractions, setting clear goals and intentions, and entering a state of flow. When in a state of hyperfocus, individuals are able to enter a state of deep concentration and accomplish tasks with greater ease and efficiency.

    Practically Actionable Items

    One of the most practical tips shared in the book is the importance of timeboxing. Timeboxing is the practice of setting aside a specific block of time to work on a particular task. By doing this, you can eliminate distractions and fully focus on the task at hand. Bailey also suggests using a timer to keep track of how much time you spend on each task, which can help you stay accountable and avoid procrastination.

    Another actionable item shared in the book is the idea of creating a distraction-free environment. This can include turning off notifications on your phone, closing unnecessary tabs on your computer, and finding a quiet place to work. By eliminating distractions, you can enter a state of hyperfocus and get more done in less time.

    Identify your most important tasks for the day: Begin each day by identifying the tasks that are most important to you and that will move you closer to your goals. Focus your attention on these tasks first, and work on them until they are completed.

    Minimize distractions: Minimize distractions as much as possible by turning off notifications on your phone, closing unnecessary tabs on your computer, and working in a quiet environment. This will help you to maintain your focus and avoid getting sidetracked by outside distractions.

    Break tasks into smaller components: Large tasks can be overwhelming, making it difficult to focus. Break these tasks down into smaller components, and focus on completing one component at a time. This will help you to maintain your focus and make progress towards completing the larger task.

    Practice intentional breaks: Taking breaks is important for maintaining focus, but it’s important to take breaks intentionally. Rather than allowing your mind to wander during your break, engage in activities that help you to recharge, such as going for a walk or doing a brief meditation.

    Use a timer: Set a timer for a specific amount of time, and work on a single task for that duration. This technique, called the Pomodoro technique, can help you to maintain your focus and avoid getting distracted by other tasks.

    Engage in scatterfocus: Engage in scatterfocus, a state of mind where you allow your mind to wander and make connections between seemingly unrelated ideas. This can help you to generate new ideas and solutions to problems.

    Prioritize your time: Prioritize your time by focusing on the tasks that are most important and that will have the greatest impact on your goals. Say no to distractions that are not important, and allocate your time and energy to the things that matter most.

    Unconventional Wisdom

    Bailey also shares some unconventional wisdom in the book, such as the idea that boredom can be a valuable tool for improving focus. By allowing yourself to become bored, you are more likely to enter a state of hyperfocus and become deeply engaged in a task. He also suggests taking breaks throughout the day to recharge your brain and avoid burnout.

    Another unconventional tip shared in the book is the importance of setting intentions before starting a task. By setting a clear intention for what you want to accomplish, you can enter a state of hyperfocus and stay motivated throughout the task.

    The concept of attention residue: Bailey introduces the concept of attention residue, which is the idea that when we switch our attention from one task to another, a residue of our attention remains on the previous task. This residue can make it difficult to focus on the new task, and can ultimately reduce our productivity.

    The benefits of hyperfocus for creativity: While hyperfocus is often associated with productivity, Bailey also explores its benefits for creativity. By focusing intensely on a single task, we can enter a state of flow where our creativity is heightened, and we can generate new and innovative ideas.

    Scatterfocus

    Scatterfocus is a state of mind that allows individuals to generate creative ideas and insights by allowing their minds to wander. Unlike hyperfocus, which involves intense concentration on a specific task, scatterfocus involves light concentration on a variety of thoughts and ideas. Bailey suggests that scatterfocus can be achieved through activities such as going for a walk, taking a shower, or simply staring out the window. By allowing your mind to wander, you can generate new ideas and insights that you may not have come up with otherwise.

    Four Types of Scatterfocus

    Here are the four types of scatterfocus and a brief explanation of each:

    Setting aside time for unfocused thinking: This type of scatterfocus involves deliberately setting aside time each day to let the mind wander and make connections. This can be as simple as taking a walk, staring out the window, or doodling on a notepad. The goal is to give the brain a break from focused attention and allow it to make new connections and associations.

    Finding a stimulating environment: This type of scatterfocus involves seeking out an environment that is visually or auditorily stimulating, such as a bustling coffee shop, a busy park, or a museum. The goal is to engage the senses and stimulate the brain to make new connections and generate fresh ideas.

    Allowing the mind to wander freely: This type of scatterfocus involves simply allowing the mind to wander and make connections on its own, without any intentional focus or goal. This might involve daydreaming, letting the mind wander while performing a mundane task, or engaging in a creative activity like drawing or painting.

    Combining focused and unfocused thinking: This type of scatterfocus involves alternating periods of focused attention with periods of unfocused thinking. For example, a person might spend 45 minutes intensely focused on a task, followed by 15 minutes of unfocused thinking, before returning to the task. The goal is to allow the mind to rest and recharge, while still making progress on important tasks.

    Each of these types of scatterfocus can be used to boost creativity, problem-solving, and productivity. By deliberately allowing the mind to wander and make connections, we can tap into the power of our unconscious mind and generate new and innovative ideas.

    Benefits of Scatterfocus

    Scatterfocus can be a valuable tool for individuals looking to enhance their creativity and generate new ideas. By allowing your mind to wander, you can tap into your subconscious and come up with innovative solutions to problems. Additionally, scatterfocus can be a great way to reduce stress and improve overall mental health. By taking time to let your mind wander, you can give your brain a break from the constant barrage of stimuli that we experience in today’s world.

    Conclusion

    Overall, Hyperfocus offers practical tips and unconventional wisdom to help readers improve their ability to focus and achieve more in less time. By implementing the tips shared in the book, you can harness the power of both hyperfocus and scatterfocus to achieve more in less time and live a more fulfilling life. By eliminating distractions, setting clear goals, and allowing your mind to wander, you can accomplish more than you ever thought possible.

  6. How does an electric cooker work

    In other words how does an electric rice cooker know when to stop cooking? 

    The technique is very simple - by measuring the temperature. Till the water is present inside the cooker, the temperature would not exceed 100C (the boiling point of water.) Once the water evaporates the temperature would exceed beyond 100C and the cooker stops cooking.